In the Ancient Near East, pithos of various sizes and capacities were widely used in multiple sectors of the economy. In Egypt, Assyria, the Hittite, and Urartian kingdoms, grain and different agricultural products, especially wine, beer, and oils, were stored in jars. Thousands of potteries were discovered during excavations in Van, Argishtikhinili, Erebuni, Ayanis, Toprak-Kale, Teishebaini, and pre-Hellenistic Artaxata.

Among the archaeological discoveries made in Karmir Bloor, 8 wine cellars founded in the 50s of the last century are very important for studying the economy of the Van kingdom. They contained more than 400 massive clay vessels.[1].

A significant amount of karas, partly from Karmirblur, marked with wedge-shaped or hieroglyphic digital marks, was also found in other Urartian monuments: more than 100 karases were found in the Erebuni[2] cellars, more than 70 in Altyn-Tepe[3], 68 in one of the wine cellars of the western fortress of Argishtikhinili[4], in Ayanis, Adldzhevaz, etc. The largest and good preserved were cellars N 25 and N 28 in Teishebaini, excavated in the 1950s, which contained 82 and 70 karases[5]. All karases are identical in form, but differ in size, which is indicated by the wedge-shaped or hieroglyphic markings in the Urartian measures of liquid volume, “akarki” and “terusi”. Published by B. B. Piotrovsky[6], these inscriptions had a broad variation: from 1 akarki 4½ terusi up to 5 akarki 5 terusi. Cuneiform and hieroglyphic signs were used in parallel, with cuneiform initially written in full, and later in the form of abbreviations of letters.

According to a number of researchers, the pithos discovered in Karmir-Blur were in different workshops, and most likely, they were made by 8 or more masters in Teyshebaini.[7] This proves that the national standardization system was implemented in the cities, which made the economy of the state manageable and accountable, which contributed to its progress.

Comprehensive metrological studies of karases of various capacities, discovered from several archaeological sites, show that they were made according to pre-fixed, standardized sizes. Standardization of ceramic ware by state decree of its main linear dimensions known in the ancient world. This is how the government achieved the unification of container volumes both for storing stocks of products and for their transportation and sale. As is evident from the Thasian decree of the second half of the 5th century BC, the standardization of the production of Thasian pithos to achieve uniformity and volumes was strictly regulated by the state by decreeing the sizes in units of length measures—dactyls (fingers)[8]. The red-glazed, spherical, three-leafed rimmed jugs with one handle (Oinochoia), found in several Urartian archaeological sites, also meet the standards. They were intended for serving wine and are almost identical in size. Thus, there is reason to believe that the origins of standardization of ancient pottery production originated in the Ancient Near East.

It is known that in the case of a reduction in the size of ceramics of different groups as a result of drying and firing, it is on average 8–12%. Probably, the potter was given two different sizes: a preliminary one, which the master had to use as a guide when forming the product, and a final one, to which the final dimensions of the product had to correspond. Moreover, it was impossible to produce pithos of such volumes in ideal standard sizes, and it was obvious that karases needed to be labeled with an indication of their capacity. Hieroglyphic and cuneiform inscriptions were made only after the jars were fired, transferred to the cellar, and filled with wine[9][10]. This is also evidenced by the fact that the inscriptions on the karases were carved into vessels that were already half buried in the ground so that they would be visible when walking through the depths of the wine cellar[11]. It should be noted that the dimensions of the jugs are indicated three times, the difference between which reaches several terusi.

According to B. Piotrovsky, 1 “akarki” was equal to 250 liters, and “terusi” was equal to ⅒ of “akarki”. Marking of the capacity on the karasakh is slightly different from each other. Probably, 1 “akarki” was divided into 10 “terusi”, based on the hypothesis that the Urartian number system was based on the decimal system[12]. Brashinsky believed that the simplest solution to the problem was metrological calculations since any measurement of volume is based on cubic units of some basic measure of length[13] (for example, the Phoenician kor is the volume of three cubic cubits, the Urartian cubit /53.1 cm/).

The cellars of Karmir Blur contained about 400,000 liters of wine /1,500 akarki/, which is a very impressive figure by the standards of the ancient world. The cellars of the monument surpass all the wine cellars of the Urartian period excavated to date, even near Manazkert, in an inscription erected by Menua, where a wine warehouse with 900 “akarki” is mentioned.

The fact of state standardization of pottery production in the Kingdom of Van is of great interest, especially in the context of studying the origins of standardization in general and its influence on the development of subsequent civilizations.

[1] B. B. Piotrovskiu, Kingdom of Van, М., 1959, pp. 145—147; same author, City of God Teisheba, С А, 1959, No 2, p. 172.

[2] Demskaya D., Erebuni Storerooms, “Communication of the A.S. Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts”, issue IV, 1968, 176-182.

[3] Özgüç, T., Altintepe II, Ankara, 1969.

[4] A. A. Martirosyan, Excavations of Argishtikhinili, SA, 1967, No. 4, p. 228; cf. also, On the socio-economic structure of the city of Argishtikhinili, SA, 1972, No. 3, p. 46.

[5] B. B. Piotrovsky, Karmir-blur, II, Yerevan, 1952, pp. 16-40.

[6] B.B. Piotrovsky, Wedge-shaped Urartian inscriptions from excavations at Karmir-blur in 1954, – “Epigraphy of the East”, XI, 1956, p. 81

[7] Ghasabyan Z. “Historical and Philological Journal”, 1959, No. 4, p. 213.

[8] I. Brashiisky, Methodology for studying standards of ancient Greek ceramic containers, S. A., 1976, No. 3,

[9] Ghazabyan 1959, 215.

[10] B. B. Piotrovsky, Karmir-blur, III, p. 23.

[11] B. B. Piotrovsky, Karmir-blur, II, p. 65.

[12] M. A. Israelyan. Clarifications on the reading of Urartian inscriptions, I. On the Urartian number system, “Ancient East”, 2, p. 116.

[13] I. B. Brashiisky, Urartian karases, “Historical and Philological Journal”, Yerevan 1978, p. 152.

It is known that winemaking and viticulture occupied a special place in the material and spiritual culture of the Hellenistic world, where creativity associated with wine is limitless. The influence of this culture, emphasized by local form, is also noticeable in Armenia.

Wine as a commercial commodity was made in ancient Armenia in large quantities and exported to the global markets. It is not incidental that wine from the “land of Armens” was in great demand during Herodotus’s times. He tells us that merchants transported red wine made in Armenia in karases (pithoi) down the rivers Euphrates and Tigris to Babylon. According to Strabo, there were fertile valleys in Armenia: Araks and Utik[1]. In the 4th century CE, the demand for Armenian wines was so high that the city of Vagharshapat became a center of the wine trade, as evidenced by the “Babylonian Gemara”[2].

Several important international trade transit routes passed through Armenia, both from China, Central Asia, and Northern India to the West, from the south to Mesopotamia, Syria, to the north, and the coasts of the Black and Azov Seas. The cities of Armenia were mainly located on strategic trade routes and took an active part in this trade with their products.

Utensils for preserving and using wine are of great interest: clay karases of varying sizes, pitchers, goblets, rhytons, and ritual and utility items of bronze, silverware, and glassware were all discovered during excavations at various sites. Below we will consider some of them.

Thanks to archaeological research in Garni, Armavir, Artashat, and Sisian, it became possible to get acquainted with the toreutics of ancient Armenia. Armenia is one of the oldest cradles of metalworking, therefore artistic metalworking has been known since centuries immemorial. In this context the princely tomb excavated near the city of Sisian in the 1970s is remarkable. Without going deep in detail about the significance of the tomb within the study of the culture of Classical Armenia, we will note that, along with several objects, three silver bowls were discovered here, intended, for serving wine. The bowls differ little from each other in size. The rims of the vessels widen inward and become rounded. One of the bowls is distinguished by its luxurious decoration, and its surface is divided into eight equal parts, the first four of which are decorated with decorative flutes, and the remaining four with pointed, elongated leaves, probably Sagittaria and stylized grape vines. Similar hemispherical bowls, considered Hellenistic, were found in Avshan in southwestern Armenia[3]. Bowls of this type were used in sacred ceremonies dedicated to the gods. Of particular note is the silver bowl found in the tomb, which, instead of plant-geometric images, has a unique Aramaic inscription. From the inscription it becomes clear that one of the princes of Syunik was buried in the tomb, probably Pitiakhsh[4] (governor of the province), the name has been preserved, as well as additional information about the units of weight of ancient Armenia. “This cup belongs to Araxszat, the weight of the silver is 100 drachmas.” The Aramaic inscription in its written form is related to the Aramaic traditions of Northern Mesopotamia[5]. The appearance of such a font in Armenia occurred in the 1st century BC during the reign of Tigran II. The same style of writing is used in Aramaic inscriptions on a glass spoon and a lapis lazuli plate discovered on the first hill of Artashat, which date back to the 1st century BC[6][7]. According to researchers, the name Araxszat mentioned in the inscription on the bowl is the name of the cup’s owner, which is encountered for the first time. The materials of the tomb in Sisian once again testify that one of the four military leaders, in the eastern part, was the prince of Syunik. The name Araxszat is translated as “born under the protection of the gods.”

The next evidence related to wine is known from excavations in the capital of Artashat – these are exclusive gold earrings depicting women’s faces. The earrings were discovered in the 1980s during excavations of a rock-cut tomb on top of a hill called “Golden Hill,” located in the northwestern part of the city. These are earrings depicting Maenads. It is known that Maenads were companions and admirers of Dionysus, the god of viticulture and winemaking in Greek mythology. Dionysus often appears surrounded by a jubilant crowd of Maenads and Satyrs. Around him, singing and shouting, dancing, young Maenads circle, tailed and goat-legged Satyrs jump, drunk with wine. The retinue ends with the old man Silenus, the wise teacher of Dionysus, who is very drunk. He sits on a donkey, leaning on a wineskin placed close to him.

Among the dozens of clay figurines found in Artashat, the figurine depicting a seated old man deserves special attention. Round head, bearded face, dense figure with pronounced muscles on the chest and stomach. With his right hand, he was hugging some object, perhaps a vessel or a wineskin. All this conveys the characteristic image of Silenus, who in Greek mythology is considered the mentor and teacher of Dionysus. Here, it is also necessary to mention the preserved head of a small clay statuette (height 5 cm), accidentally found in the city of Vagharshapat, depicting Dionysus. The statutes are exhibited in the History Museum of Armenia. A very interesting clay jug with the image of Dionysus is exhibited in the Shirak local history museum, it was discovered during the excavation in Benjamin and dates back to the 1st century AD. Here the deity is presented in a very interesting form: his face and hands were plastered to the inner side of the pitcher immediately after its manufacture, creating the impression that Dionysus is trying to get out of the vessel.

It is noteworthy that the historian of the 10th century Tovma Artsruni mentioned the sanctuary of Dionysus, built by King Artashes I in the province of Pokr Agbak of the principality of Korchayk of Greater Armenia[8]. Artashes I attached great importance to the development of horticulture and viticulture[9]. He planted “groves of lush trees, vineyards and various fruits” in the southern suburbs of the city of Van[10].

Of interest are three bear-shaped vessels found in Armenia, one of which was excavated in the Vayots Dzor region and the other two in different areas of the capital Artashat. The zoomorphic vessel from Vayots Dzor is similar to the vessel found in the room of the crafts quarter on the 8th hill of Artashat, with some differences in size and decor. The vessels are associated with the serving of wine and date back to the 1st-2nd centuries AD.

Excavations of monuments of the classical period of Armenia – Armavir, Garni, Artashat, and other places – testify to the great influence of the ancient period and, in particular, the Hellenistic world from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD on Armenian culture.

Thus, in the countries covered by Hellenistic cultural circles, including Armenia, several cultural communities emerged that were not so much borrowings as the fact of the existence of a certain common artistic atmosphere that formed a unique region that existed throughout the Hellenistic East.

[1] Strabo 1964, II, I, 14.

[2] Gasparyan B., Vine and Wine, Yerevan 2005, p. 145.

[3] Mithcell St., Asvan Kale, Anatolian studies, vol. XXIII, 1973, fg. 23, 3

[4]  Khachatryan Zh., The Tomb of Sisian, NAS RA “Gitutyun” publishing house, Yerevan, 2009.

[5] Perikhanyan A., Aramaic inscription on a silver bowl from Sisian, IFJ 1971, N3, p. 78-81.

[6] Khachatryan Zh.D., Glassmaking in Ancient Armenia, IFZ, 1971, N3, pp. 78-81.

[7] B. N. Arakelian, Artashat I, Main results of excavations 1970-1977, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1982.

[8] Tovma Artsruni, 1985, I, 8, 91.

[9] Palandjyan R., Archaeological finds related to winemaking in Ancient Armenia from Vayots Dzor, IAE, Yerevan 2023.

[10] Tovma Artsruni, 1985, I,7, 8, 85, 87-89.

Among the historical and cultural achievements of the ancient Ecumene are several trade items: coins, seals intended for important states, and commercial documents—bullae, which depicted various scenes related to viticulture and winemaking. The influence of this tradition is also visible in Armenia.

The excavations of ancient Artashat, which began in the 1970s, revealed the city’s significant role in the ancient world and shed new light on the material and spiritual culture of ancient Armenia. Of particular value in revealing a number of important socio-economic problems of antiquity are the three city archives[1] found, in which important documents were sealed, as well as monetary inventions—coins.

As one of the region’s most important centers of viticulture and winemaking, Armenia was located at the crossroads of major trade routes. As evidenced by archaeological research of the last decade. The series of bullae from the first archive of Artashat, related to wine, are unique. On the obverse of some bullae, a narrow vessel is depicted, probably an amphora, placed between two bunches of grapes and a star at the top, on others – grape leaves, depicting a grapevine, as well as individual images of amphorae and vessels. The amphora and grapevines undoubtedly testify to the active trade in wine in ancient Armenia.

The heyday of ancient Armenia was primarily due to transit trade. Capitals levied double duty on goods both for export and import. Rich cities of the ancient world, such as Seleucia on the Tigris, Antioch, Rhodes, Ephesus, Corinth, Delos, etc., also lived off international transit trade.

In addition to seals, a bunch of grapes can also be seen on coins. Similar to the above-mentioned seals are the Seleucid coins of Myrina, on the reverse of which an amphora with grape branches and leaves is depicted under the feet of Zeus[2]. On the coins of the Greco-Roman period of Tarsus, amphoras can also be seen lying on their sides[3]. The type of image of a bunch of grapes on the coins found in Sol is very close to the above-mentioned type of image of Artashat[4]. In Phrygia, on the coins of Dionysuspolis (2nd-1st centuries BC), on the obverse is minted a mask of Silenus, and on the reverse – a grape leaf[5], which we also see on the gem kept in the Louvre[6].

Of particular note are several numerous coins from the Artashes Mint, on the reverse of which a bunch of grapes is depicted. They are known both from private collections and from archaeological finds. Some researchers believe that the coins belong to Artashes I, while others are inclined to attribute them to Artashes II. Coins issued by Tigran II are also known, on the reverse of which a grapevine is found[7].

In general, in Asia Minor, frequent images of grape bunches and leaves are associated with the cult of Dionysus[8], viticulture, and wine export, which once again proves the importance of the wine trade in Armenia. Several Armenian[9] and Greek[10] historians mention the high-quality wines of Armenia.

Armenia has exported wine at various historical periods of its existence. It is no coincidence that Armenian coins, which had the king on the obverse, had a grapevine on the reverse as the country’s most important

[1] Хачатрян Ж., Неверов О., Архивы столицы древней Армении – Арташата, Археологические памятники Армении, Ереван 2008.

[2] Хачатрян , Неверов, 2008.

[3] Goldmen H., Excavations at Gozlu Kule, Tarsus. The Hellenistic and Roman periods, Princeton, New-Jersey, 1950, vol. I, text, p. 403, pl. 276, plan 19, pl. 118, fig. 86.

[4] Cox D.H., A Tarsus coin collection in the Adana Museum, New York, 1941, pl. VI, 129-132.

[5] H. von Aulock, Munzen und Stadte Phrygiens . Teil II, IM, Beiheft 27, Ernst Wasmuth Verlag Tubingen, 1987, p. 52, Taf. 1, 2, 2.

[6] Walter H. B., Catalogue of the engraved gems, N 394.

[7] Gasparyan B., Wine in Traditional Armenian Culture, Yerevan, 2005.

[8] Хачатрян , Неверов, 2008, 88.

[9] Мовсес Хоренаци, История Армении (пер. с древнеармянского языка, введение, прим. Г. Саркисяна), Ереван, 1990, I, 16, II, 12.       

[10] Ксенофонт, Анабасис (перевод, стстья и примечания-М.И> Максимовойк). М.-Л., 1951, IV, II, 22, IV, 9; Страбон , II, I, 14, XI, VII, 2, CV, I, 58.