The Armenian Highlands have been a prominent center of agriculture since ancient times, where viticulture and winemaking have been among the leading branches of the economy since at least the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. Cuneiform inscriptions of the Kingdom of Van contain references to the establishment of gardens, fencing, construction of cellars, and other economic buildings. In the Hellenistic and pre-Christian period, writing is somewhat replaced by iconography, when the garden-grape scene or simply the vine (fig. 1) begins to spread in the decoration of temple and palace complexes, which later becomes one of the main decorative elements of Christian art, which is expressed mostly in the composition of khachkars in the form of both vines and jugs symbolizing wine (fig. 2-7).

In the Middle Ages, the vineyards were called gardens, and the mention of their purchase and donation to monasteries is evidenced in lithographs from the 9th-10th centuries. Winemaking was also an integral part of gardening. Dry wine often referred to as “cup” in lithographs, is still used in church rites as a symbol of the blood of Christ.

The lithographs show that the gardens could be donated to the monasteries both in full or partially, that is, part of the garden. In addition, the monastery had the authority to manage the crop or income of the garden. For example, according to a 1301 donation from St. Astvatsatsin Church in Goshavank, a hundred jugs of wine from the garden were donated to the monastery. One of the lithographs of 1275 in the lobby of the Sanahin bookstore of the monastery is similar, according to which priest Vardan bought a garden for 375 silver drams and donated it to the monastery’s guest house. Interestingly, at the end of the lithography, the donor addresses the well-known curse-blessing formula, cursing not only those who alienate the garden from the guest house but also those who disrupt the wine (winemaking). 

The information about winemaking in the lithographs is supplemented by evidence of the construction and donation of hndzans (wineries). Thus, According to a khachkar lithograph erected near Noravank monastery, the religious Arakel and his brother Khotsadegh bought a garden with their means, cultivated it, then built a hndzan and in celebration of the work done and the preservation of the harvest (in this case, also wine) they erected a khachkar.

The existence of hndzans in medieval monasteries testifies to the ritual significance of wine in church rites. It can be said that the sacrament of Holy Communion, which is distributed to the faithful at the end of the liturgy, is useless without wine. One of the earliest references to the use of a “cup” of wine in churches is preserved on the lintel of the northern entrance of the church of S. Astvatsatsin in Amberd (Fig. 8, 9). According to the lithograph dated 1026, after the construction of the church, Prince Vahram Pahlavuni determines the amount of the “fruit” tax given to the monasteries- the house for Nig province is two grains of wheat, from Aragatsotn province – two pots (about 10-11 liters) of wine, and from Qaghakudasht, that is, Vagharshapat – ten liters of cotton. The lithograph is the best evidence of the development of grain cultivation, winemaking, and cotton growing in the mentioned places during that period.

In the 1036 lithograph of the Church of the Savior in Ani, the capital of Bagratuni Armenia, Catholicos Petros Getadardz (1019-1058) donated several proceeds to the church ministers and donated a “cup” of wine to Ablgharib Pahlavuni, who initiated the construction of the church. Later, we read about the donation of thirty pas (about 150 liters) of cups in the 1308 lithograph of St. Astvatsatsin Church in Nerkin Ulgyugh village, Vayots Dzor, and according to the 1325 lithograph of the Karmravor St. Astvatsatsin Church in Ashtarak, a garden was donated to the church, the users of which should give a “cup” of wine.

Our recent lithographic research has revealed that “cup” of wine had a special significance in the church rite in the 18th century, the best pairs of which are preserved in the lithographs of St. Hripsime Monastery (Pics. 10, 11). According to a lithograph dated 1728, a certain Gaspar son of Babel donated to the monastery a hundred jars of cups, including grapes, which after processing would be used as a “cup” of wine. According to another countless lithograph of the same monastery, Simon of Dzoragegh and his grandchildren, Eliazar and Vardan, donated a jar to St. Hripsime Monastery. It should be noted that Anania Shirakatsi set 126 cups of wine for the weight of one jar, and one cup weighs about 5.5 kg.

In almost all of the above examples, wine was donated to the monasteries to be served and mentioned by name by the ministers of the church during various religious holidays. Donors followed the well-known template formulas for writing lithographs characteristic of donation letters, ensuring the integrity of their donated property and the promised liturgy.

Arsen Harutyunyan

PHD, Senior Researcher at the IAE

The ceramics of the Classical period of Tigranakert (1^st century BC-3^rd century AD), represented by the richest collection of archaeological material discovered during a decade and a half of excavations, is important source for studying the material and spiritual culture of that period.

Besides rich diversity of shapes it has another important peculiarity: it is presented by luxurious painted pottery, black and gray ware, polished, and decorated by stamped and incised ornaments. Among this diversity there is a small but unique group of stamped vessels that can shed light on cultural innovations of Tigranakert, trade and cultural connections, and the cultural role it played in the region.

Exceptional examples of stamped pottery revealed from the excavations of Tigranakert carried out in different years are black polished, shining goblets, phialas, and fragments of bowls externally decorated with embossed grape clusters forming bands (fig.1). This ceramics is called “cluster-bearing vessels”, meaning that these decorations due to the conical, stamped designs with sharp bottoms and small circles inside are most probably representations of grape clusters.

An analysis of over thirty examples of cluster-bearing vessels reveal that the craftsmen of that period utilized at least nine stampers in order to create the conical clusters that contain from three to eleven grapes that are arranged in different ways (for example, in the case of six or eight circles).

However, despite the diverse samples noted above, there have been no pottery stampers discovered. It is possible to picture what they looked like based on their depiction at the famous sites of the Classical period in the West (fig.2). In order to be utilized comfortably, the stampers had long handles, which sometimes had one or two carved usable ends. The stamped designs were made while the clay was still in a moist, soft state.

Horizontal bands are seen 1.5-2 cm below the rim on the inner side of the black polished vessels of Tigranakert around the perimeter of the vessel and 1.5 cm apart, with the stamped clusters between them running horizontally and equidistantly all the way around. Sometimes two rows of cluster-bearing rows can be found in the same vessel.

During the excavations of the first urban quarter of Classical period carried out in 2013 a complete goblet was found, where the cluster-bearing row is located near the base of the vessel (fig.3). The belt, Almost 5 cm wide belt, formed between its concentric line 2.5 cm below the edge, is decorated with incised triangles.

Moreover, the ornament obtained by the symmetrical repeating pattern of one or more triangles embedded in the horizontal lines is one of the most widely used ornaments on painted pottery, was popular among the masters of Tigranakert. Sometimes two rows of cluster decorations can be found on the same vessel.  In these cases, the first row is located very close to the rim of the vessel, like as on the phialas (Figure 1/3). The second cluster-bearing row is located near the base of the vessel, underlining the bottom. In some samples, the lip of the vessel is underlined with a gently carved stripe. There are also examples with the lip decorated with a grove line. Generally, the clusters are stamped into a straight band, but there are some vessels where the band near the lip is stamped in a staggered way in two lines (fig.4).

These cluster-bearing vessels were created in the unity of the shape, practical significance, and the ornament. According to the studies of the material, only the open vessels were stamped by grape cluster decorations and were intended for drinking liquid / wine. Goblets and phialas bearing cluster decorations confirm the proposition that winemaking was quite developed in Tigranakert of the Classical period. That is also approved by a rock-cut wine-press presented by a polygonal platform and a pit, discovered at the eastern foot of the fortified quarter of Tigranakert in 2012, as well as hundreds of fragments of wine vessels, painted amphorae, and goblets.

An elegant pendant made of blue glass in a shape of grape cluster found from the first urban quarter of the Classical period, as well as the archaeobotanical analyzes of carbonized grape seeds (Vitis vinifera) samples give an idea that at least two types of grapes were cultivated for technical and table purposes in Tigranakert of the Classical period.

The elegant performance of the whole composition of cluster-bearing vessels of Tigranakert, those black polished surface, which tends to leave the impression of varnishing, gives these vessels a special beauty, and provides ground to suppose that they were used for a special purpose.

Armine Gabrielyan

PHD, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography National Academy of Sciences Republic of Armenia

Wine is one of the most mysterious drinks in the history of mankind, with numerous useful properties, mixed with dramas and wars, religion and politics. Why does this ordinary drink so popular since ancient times, and why that is it received attention not only privileged class, but also creative individuals – writers and painters. This many-sorted and  fragrant drink has a centuries-old history, which is not equipped with just dry dates, but also specific symbolism and pictorial canvases. Usually wine embraces the beautiful theme for philosophical reflection. From the one side, its usage could temporarily rid of earthborn concerns, give a bouquet of pleasant peace, but on the other hand, excessive drinking  caused for inadequate state, where reality is fusing with fantasy, which is called “drunkenness” in ordinary language. This drink, which was allowed to be used only by the nobility in those days, seemed to be a kind of “elaborate”, intangible test to test their sense of proportion. Another feature: excessive use seems to “untie the tongue”, which led the Greeks to a wise thought: “truth is in wine”. Where the human mind controls and resists the full expression of its thoughts in every possible way, there wine acts as a magical drink of truth, in the process of using which both slyness and hypocrisy and a tendency to lie disappear.

Wine and winemaking occupy a key place especially in Armenian culture. Wine is not just a drink for them as a way of feeling tranquility, but a sacred drink, which history goes back to the Christian tradition. As is known to all, the first grapevine was planted by Noah. The symbolic interpretation of this event meant a divine reward for patience and faith. In the biblical context, wine crystallizes the divine gift to humanity. Because Noah’s ark landed to Ararat, this event gives reason to assume that Armenia is the birthplace of wine, so this mountain is not only sacred in the Bible, but is also a symbol of Armenia. On this basis, the attitude of Armenians towards wine is quite respectful. It manifests itself in pictorial art by the form of various motifs and subjects. Especially the southern bright coloration contributes to the expressive conveying of the gifts of nature, especially grapes. Armenian masters, with their rich palette, feature the exciting process of grape harvesting, admiring its juiciness. For example, in the works of Martiros Saryan and Minas Avetisyan, whose canvases transfer the colorful expanses of Armenia, can be found still-lifes with grapes.

All of the still lifes of Martiros Saryan embody only the one simple idea – pulsating, immortal life. But unlike other still lifes, here the coloring is more laconic. However Saryan was succeed to show the ripeness of fruits in the frame of limited palette. The sunlight falls on them, intensifying the feeling of freshness and naturalness. About composition, black grapes occupy a central place, which color makes them more massive and ripe. And the rest of the attributes have only a service character, bringing into balance the composition – both in terms of color and composition. This still life is included in the middle period of the maestro’s oeuvre, when he had already become acquainted with Fauvism and that was the style in what he found a way to reproduce his southern temperament. These are strong contrasts, correctly chosen color ratio and light composition.

If in Saryan’s paintings everything is submitting to harmony and balance, then in Minas’ works everything is the opposite –that is expression, shining temperament dominates the line and composition. If Saryan’s still life is a transfer of calmness, peace, it is a hymn to life, then Minas’ work is the extent of intense thoughts and emotions. Unlike Saryan’s still lifes, Minas’ brush works briefly and expressively. On his canvas there is no place for Saryan’s calmness, here is only contrasts. Added to this is pastosity, which makes the painting truly pulsating, despite of the staticness of the figures. If in the case of Saryan, the still life emphasized generosity of the nature, Minas doesn’t put on task of this type. He is much more engaged with the juxtaposition of  bright red, navy blue and yellow-green. It’s a battle of inconsistent colours.Saryan’s still life is more static, calm, which corresponds to his life’s philosophy. What is about Mina’s still life, here both color and composition are subject to the dynamic.

The wonderful draftsman B. Kolozyan is also extremely attentive to nature and its gifts, like Saryan, but unlike him, his works literally abound in fruits, as if the canvas limits them, preventing them from conveying all the generosity and richness of nature. In his still life, the artist contrasts the black and blue colors of grapes with the whiteness of a sheet, creating the illusion of infinity and unlimited space. Here everything flows in all directions, and in a modest plate there is not even a hope that the grapes will fit.

Ashtarak is one of the important regions of Armenian winemaking culture, about which, along with numerous primary sources and researchers, significant data is also provided by the prominent writer, historian, and ethnographer Yervand Shahaziz in his book “History of Ashtarak” (Yerevan, “Hayastan” publ., 1987, 251 pages), and later supplemented by Gevorg Gevorgyan, whose manuscripts (HAI archive, Gevorgyan Gevorg, Ethnographic materials of Ashtarak, 1972, file 1, 99 pages) are kept in the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia.

Shahaziz began writing his work in 1908, completing it in 1934. In the study, which lasted more than a quarter of a century, giving a special place to the winemaking of the Ashtarak region, relying on earlier sources, Shahaziz comes from the depths of history and reaches the period in which he lived. Particularly noteworthy are the testimonies related to the winemaking culture of a relatively new period, especially since the author himself witnessed all this.

He writes that starting from the 18^th-19^th centuries, the grape growers of Ashtarak first harvested the grapes and exchanged them with the herders coming down from the Aragatsotn mountains, thus storing their winter supplies (oil, cheese, butter, etc.), after which they immediately started the grape harvest intended for wine.

The ethnographer notes that in the early period, the people of Ashtarak built their wine presses[1] right in the vineyards, thus living for two to three months of the year in temporary shelters made in the gardens. “…he, on the one hand, harvested the grapes, carried out with large milking pails the roof of the winepress, and poured right through the yerdik (roof opening) to the aragast (pressing floor), where they were pressed, and the muz (must) going like a stream, was poured into takars (large earthenware jars), on the other hand, the must be more or less settled in the takars, the clarified juice, or, as they say, kaghtsu, was carried with leshks (untanned calfskins), to his shiratun (wine cellar) and poured into karases (large earthenware jars, pitchers), on the third hand, the women have taken their share of kaghtsu, they cooked mat (a sweet grape preserve), they conserved and prepared shpot, dipped the rows of walnut, almond, melon seeds, made shudzhukh (churchkhela). There remained the remains of the grapes, the kncher (pomace), from which the Ashtarak resident used to distill oghi (fruit vodka) …” (Shahaziz 1987, 216).

After the beginning of the 20^th century (that is, the time when Shahaziz started to create his work), the people of Ashtarak no longer had wine presses in their gardens. Instead of the former wine presses, at that time they built three-walled, open-faced, light, temporary structures in the gardens – “dagans”, in which the gardeners in the gardens during the months of fruit and grape harvest sheltered from the rain. “…long ago the grapes are no longer pressed in the vineyards, but during the harvest, on the one hand, the grapes are harvested, and on the other hand, they are transported by horses, donkeys and carts to the village, where aragasts and takars are built in the houses, everywhere” (Shahaziz 1987, 218).

Those buildings were called hndzanabags, but Shahaziz finds it difficult to specify their structure. P. Proshyan describes the hndzanabag as follows: “It is a ruin, the surfaces of the square hewn stones along its approximate length are pitted in places by the eroding force of time. The archaeologist would date it to at least 700-800 years” (P. Proshyan, Tsetser, Tiflis, 1889, publ. M.D. Rotinyants, p. 48).

The writer-ethnographer presents with special luxury and colorful images the Ashtarak resident who “entered the house” after the grape harvest, already in winter, when his revelry began and “he put the new wine on the table, which had not even fermented and, one might say, was machar – “a tart, sweet and mild, cloudy kaghtsu, which has been in the process of fermenting, of becoming a real wine” (Shahaziz 1987, 219).

Agreeing with all the claims of the Ashtarak resident’s security, Shahaziz, however, opposes the wording “wine-drinking Ashtarak resident”, noting that, yes, a lot of wine is created in Ashtarak, but the people of Shirak and Pambak drink more Ashtarak wine and oghi than those who make them. “…he drank and drinks, his table was not without wine and oghi, but he drank in moderation, drunkenness has always been an unfamiliar passion to the Ashtarak resident.” … The old Ashtarak resident liked to be happy, to have fun, but those “entertainments never had a hooligan character” (Shahaziz 1987, 220).

G. Gevorgyan writes about the wine-making culture of Ashtarak in more detail and vividly. He writes that the karases in Ashtarak were washed with water, then the inner walls were smeared with melted fat, after which they were filled with must, which had to be filled to a special extent, because in case of filling it completely, the karascould burst during fermentation. In order to avoid all this and to be safe, people placed the karases on cemented aragasts, thanks to which, in case of breaking the karas, the must would not be absorbed into the soil, but would flow and fill the takar.

Gevorgyan writes that after gaining the possibility of using sulfur, Ashtarak winemakers disinfected the barrels more easily. They burned sulfur-coated papers in an empty barrel, which perfectly cleaned it of all the bacteria and fungi that could remain and spoil the wine. “After filling the karases with must, after a few days it starts to boil, producing carbon dioxide gas, so if the number of karases is large, it is terrible to enter the cellar at that moment, a person can be suffocated by the gas. There have been cases when a person has suffocated while removing the knjir (pomace) from the takar” (Gevorgyan 1972, 70).

About a month later, it is necessary to “krtel” the wine, which means to separate the dirt (lees) from the clear wine. This is also an important and interesting operation, which the ethnographer presents in full detail and mentions the dialect names of all the tools used in the whole process (aragast, takar, gup, tik, karas, abigardan, jujum (a measure equal to half a bucket), parch, kereghan (for drinking)).

It was necessary to insert the long stick into the barrel, to understand how much part is sediment, how much part is clear wine, then to remove the clear wine with the abigardan and pour it into another, already cleaned and prepared karas. “Later, when the barrel entered use in Ashtarak, the siphon, a rubber tube, also entered use with it, since the abigardan would not fit into the barrel, then, when they measured the amount of sediment in the karas or the barrel full of wine, one end of the rubber tube was tied to the measuring stick from where the wine and sediment separate from each other, then the stick was lowered into the karas or barrel with the tube, the wine was drawn by mouth from one end of the tube, and when the wine started to flow, they put it into an empty karas or barrel, the pure wine was transferred to an empty barrel or karas. In this way, the barrel was filled to the top and the mouth was closed with a wooden stopper, sulfur powder was poured around the stopper… to protect it from vinegar flies” (Gevorgyan 1972, 70).

It is also noteworthy that the Ashtarakians strictly forbade placing cheese, pickles, kerosene or dried spices near the wine karas or barrel, because wine is sensitive to smells and tastes and can absorb them. “…imagine that you are drinking wine and smell kerosene” (Gevorgyan 1972, 71). G. Gevorgyan also refers to the famous grape variety “Kharji” and notes the history of obtaining a “Sherry” type wine from it. “An Ashtarakian noticed early on that a membrane had formed on the surface of the wine in his karas, he thought that the wine had gone bad, but when he drank it, he saw that it was tastier and more aromatic, not realizing that this membrane on the surface of the karas was nothing other than a sherry fungus. … The first study of this fungus was conducted by the winemaker Afrikyan, who visited Ashtarak. She found it better than Spanish sherry, and thanks to the Soviets, a winery was built in Ashtarak. It was thanks to the winery that at the 1970 international wine tasting [the wine] won first place in the world, receiving a gold medal” (Gevorgyan 1972, 71-72

[1] On the wine press culture of the Ashtarak region, see G.S. Tumanyan, Wine Press Culture in Armenia, Yerevan, “Zangak-97”, pp. 31-32, 40, 44, 50-54; H.L. Petrosyan, S.G. Hobosyan, H.P. Hakobyan, Medieval Wine Presses of Ashtarak, Yerevan, 1989, 90-92; E.N. Hakobyan, The Architecture of the Folk Dwelling of the Ashtarak Region, Yerevan, pp. 34-39.

Gevorg Gyulumyan

National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia

Institute Archaeology and Ethnography

In the Ancient Near East, pithos of various sizes and capacities were widely used in multiple sectors of the economy. In Egypt, Assyria, the Hittite, and Urartian kingdoms, grain and different agricultural products, especially wine, beer, and oils, were stored in jars. Thousands of potteries were discovered during excavations in Van, Argishtikhinili, Erebuni, Ayanis, Toprak-Kale, Teishebaini, and pre-Hellenistic Artaxata.

Among the archaeological discoveries made in Karmir Bloor, 8 wine cellars founded in the 50s of the last century are very important for studying the economy of the Van kingdom. They contained more than 400 massive clay vessels.[1].

A significant amount of karas, partly from Karmirblur, marked with wedge-shaped or hieroglyphic digital marks, was also found in other Urartian monuments: more than 100 karases were found in the Erebuni[2] cellars, more than 70 in Altyn-Tepe[3], 68 in one of the wine cellars of the western fortress of Argishtikhinili[4], in Ayanis, Adldzhevaz, etc. The largest and good preserved were cellars N 25 and N 28 in Teishebaini, excavated in the 1950s, which contained 82 and 70 karases[5]. All karases are identical in form, but differ in size, which is indicated by the wedge-shaped or hieroglyphic markings in the Urartian measures of liquid volume, “akarki” and “terusi”. Published by B. B. Piotrovsky[6], these inscriptions had a broad variation: from 1 akarki 4½ terusi up to 5 akarki 5 terusi. Cuneiform and hieroglyphic signs were used in parallel, with cuneiform initially written in full, and later in the form of abbreviations of letters.

According to a number of researchers, the pithos discovered in Karmir-Blur were in different workshops, and most likely, they were made by 8 or more masters in Teyshebaini.[7] This proves that the national standardization system was implemented in the cities, which made the economy of the state manageable and accountable, which contributed to its progress.

Comprehensive metrological studies of karases of various capacities, discovered from several archaeological sites, show that they were made according to pre-fixed, standardized sizes. Standardization of ceramic ware by state decree of its main linear dimensions known in the ancient world. This is how the government achieved the unification of container volumes both for storing stocks of products and for their transportation and sale. As is evident from the Thasian decree of the second half of the 5th century BC, the standardization of the production of Thasian pithos to achieve uniformity and volumes was strictly regulated by the state by decreeing the sizes in units of length measures—dactyls (fingers)[8]. The red-glazed, spherical, three-leafed rimmed jugs with one handle (Oinochoia), found in several Urartian archaeological sites, also meet the standards. They were intended for serving wine and are almost identical in size. Thus, there is reason to believe that the origins of standardization of ancient pottery production originated in the Ancient Near East.

It is known that in the case of a reduction in the size of ceramics of different groups as a result of drying and firing, it is on average 8–12%. Probably, the potter was given two different sizes: a preliminary one, which the master had to use as a guide when forming the product, and a final one, to which the final dimensions of the product had to correspond. Moreover, it was impossible to produce pithos of such volumes in ideal standard sizes, and it was obvious that karases needed to be labeled with an indication of their capacity. Hieroglyphic and cuneiform inscriptions were made only after the jars were fired, transferred to the cellar, and filled with wine[9][10]. This is also evidenced by the fact that the inscriptions on the karases were carved into vessels that were already half buried in the ground so that they would be visible when walking through the depths of the wine cellar[11]. It should be noted that the dimensions of the jugs are indicated three times, the difference between which reaches several terusi.

According to B. Piotrovsky, 1 “akarki” was equal to 250 liters, and “terusi” was equal to ⅒ of “akarki”. Marking of the capacity on the karasakh is slightly different from each other. Probably, 1 “akarki” was divided into 10 “terusi”, based on the hypothesis that the Urartian number system was based on the decimal system[12]. Brashinsky believed that the simplest solution to the problem was metrological calculations since any measurement of volume is based on cubic units of some basic measure of length[13] (for example, the Phoenician kor is the volume of three cubic cubits, the Urartian cubit /53.1 cm/).

The cellars of Karmir Blur contained about 400,000 liters of wine /1,500 akarki/, which is a very impressive figure by the standards of the ancient world. The cellars of the monument surpass all the wine cellars of the Urartian period excavated to date, even near Manazkert, in an inscription erected by Menua, where a wine warehouse with 900 “akarki” is mentioned.

The fact of state standardization of pottery production in the Kingdom of Van is of great interest, especially in the context of studying the origins of standardization in general and its influence on the development of subsequent civilizations.

[1] B. B. Piotrovskiu, Kingdom of Van, М., 1959, pp. 145—147; same author, City of God Teisheba, С А, 1959, No 2, p. 172.

[2] Demskaya D., Erebuni Storerooms, “Communication of the A.S. Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts”, issue IV, 1968, 176-182.

[3] Özgüç, T., Altintepe II, Ankara, 1969.

[4] A. A. Martirosyan, Excavations of Argishtikhinili, SA, 1967, No. 4, p. 228; cf. also, On the socio-economic structure of the city of Argishtikhinili, SA, 1972, No. 3, p. 46.

[5] B. B. Piotrovsky, Karmir-blur, II, Yerevan, 1952, pp. 16-40.

[6] B.B. Piotrovsky, Wedge-shaped Urartian inscriptions from excavations at Karmir-blur in 1954, – “Epigraphy of the East”, XI, 1956, p. 81

[7] Ghasabyan Z. “Historical and Philological Journal”, 1959, No. 4, p. 213.

[8] I. Brashiisky, Methodology for studying standards of ancient Greek ceramic containers, S. A., 1976, No. 3,

[9] Ghazabyan 1959, 215.

[10] B. B. Piotrovsky, Karmir-blur, III, p. 23.

[11] B. B. Piotrovsky, Karmir-blur, II, p. 65.

[12] M. A. Israelyan. Clarifications on the reading of Urartian inscriptions, I. On the Urartian number system, “Ancient East”, 2, p. 116.

[13] I. B. Brashiisky, Urartian karases, “Historical and Philological Journal”, Yerevan 1978, p. 152.

It is known that winemaking and viticulture occupied a special place in the material and spiritual culture of the Hellenistic world, where creativity associated with wine is limitless. The influence of this culture, emphasized by local form, is also noticeable in Armenia.

Wine as a commercial commodity was made in ancient Armenia in large quantities and exported to the global markets. It is not incidental that wine from the “land of Armens” was in great demand during Herodotus’s times. He tells us that merchants transported red wine made in Armenia in karases (pithoi) down the rivers Euphrates and Tigris to Babylon. According to Strabo, there were fertile valleys in Armenia: Araks and Utik[1]. In the 4th century CE, the demand for Armenian wines was so high that the city of Vagharshapat became a center of the wine trade, as evidenced by the “Babylonian Gemara”[2].

Several important international trade transit routes passed through Armenia, both from China, Central Asia, and Northern India to the West, from the south to Mesopotamia, Syria, to the north, and the coasts of the Black and Azov Seas. The cities of Armenia were mainly located on strategic trade routes and took an active part in this trade with their products.

Utensils for preserving and using wine are of great interest: clay karases of varying sizes, pitchers, goblets, rhytons, and ritual and utility items of bronze, silverware, and glassware were all discovered during excavations at various sites. Below we will consider some of them.

Thanks to archaeological research in Garni, Armavir, Artashat, and Sisian, it became possible to get acquainted with the toreutics of ancient Armenia. Armenia is one of the oldest cradles of metalworking, therefore artistic metalworking has been known since centuries immemorial. In this context the princely tomb excavated near the city of Sisian in the 1970s is remarkable. Without going deep in detail about the significance of the tomb within the study of the culture of Classical Armenia, we will note that, along with several objects, three silver bowls were discovered here, intended, for serving wine. The bowls differ little from each other in size. The rims of the vessels widen inward and become rounded. One of the bowls is distinguished by its luxurious decoration, and its surface is divided into eight equal parts, the first four of which are decorated with decorative flutes, and the remaining four with pointed, elongated leaves, probably Sagittaria and stylized grape vines. Similar hemispherical bowls, considered Hellenistic, were found in Avshan in southwestern Armenia[3]. Bowls of this type were used in sacred ceremonies dedicated to the gods. Of particular note is the silver bowl found in the tomb, which, instead of plant-geometric images, has a unique Aramaic inscription. From the inscription it becomes clear that one of the princes of Syunik was buried in the tomb, probably Pitiakhsh[4] (governor of the province), the name has been preserved, as well as additional information about the units of weight of ancient Armenia. “This cup belongs to Araxszat, the weight of the silver is 100 drachmas.” The Aramaic inscription in its written form is related to the Aramaic traditions of Northern Mesopotamia[5]. The appearance of such a font in Armenia occurred in the 1st century BC during the reign of Tigran II. The same style of writing is used in Aramaic inscriptions on a glass spoon and a lapis lazuli plate discovered on the first hill of Artashat, which date back to the 1st century BC[6][7]. According to researchers, the name Araxszat mentioned in the inscription on the bowl is the name of the cup’s owner, which is encountered for the first time. The materials of the tomb in Sisian once again testify that one of the four military leaders, in the eastern part, was the prince of Syunik. The name Araxszat is translated as “born under the protection of the gods.”

The next evidence related to wine is known from excavations in the capital of Artashat – these are exclusive gold earrings depicting women’s faces. The earrings were discovered in the 1980s during excavations of a rock-cut tomb on top of a hill called “Golden Hill,” located in the northwestern part of the city. These are earrings depicting Maenads. It is known that Maenads were companions and admirers of Dionysus, the god of viticulture and winemaking in Greek mythology. Dionysus often appears surrounded by a jubilant crowd of Maenads and Satyrs. Around him, singing and shouting, dancing, young Maenads circle, tailed and goat-legged Satyrs jump, drunk with wine. The retinue ends with the old man Silenus, the wise teacher of Dionysus, who is very drunk. He sits on a donkey, leaning on a wineskin placed close to him.

Among the dozens of clay figurines found in Artashat, the figurine depicting a seated old man deserves special attention. Round head, bearded face, dense figure with pronounced muscles on the chest and stomach. With his right hand, he was hugging some object, perhaps a vessel or a wineskin. All this conveys the characteristic image of Silenus, who in Greek mythology is considered the mentor and teacher of Dionysus. Here, it is also necessary to mention the preserved head of a small clay statuette (height 5 cm), accidentally found in the city of Vagharshapat, depicting Dionysus. The statutes are exhibited in the History Museum of Armenia. A very interesting clay jug with the image of Dionysus is exhibited in the Shirak local history museum, it was discovered during the excavation in Benjamin and dates back to the 1st century AD. Here the deity is presented in a very interesting form: his face and hands were plastered to the inner side of the pitcher immediately after its manufacture, creating the impression that Dionysus is trying to get out of the vessel.

It is noteworthy that the historian of the 10th century Tovma Artsruni mentioned the sanctuary of Dionysus, built by King Artashes I in the province of Pokr Agbak of the principality of Korchayk of Greater Armenia[8]. Artashes I attached great importance to the development of horticulture and viticulture[9]. He planted “groves of lush trees, vineyards and various fruits” in the southern suburbs of the city of Van[10].

Of interest are three bear-shaped vessels found in Armenia, one of which was excavated in the Vayots Dzor region and the other two in different areas of the capital Artashat. The zoomorphic vessel from Vayots Dzor is similar to the vessel found in the room of the crafts quarter on the 8th hill of Artashat, with some differences in size and decor. The vessels are associated with the serving of wine and date back to the 1st-2nd centuries AD.

Excavations of monuments of the classical period of Armenia – Armavir, Garni, Artashat, and other places – testify to the great influence of the ancient period and, in particular, the Hellenistic world from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD on Armenian culture.

Thus, in the countries covered by Hellenistic cultural circles, including Armenia, several cultural communities emerged that were not so much borrowings as the fact of the existence of a certain common artistic atmosphere that formed a unique region that existed throughout the Hellenistic East.

[1] Strabo 1964, II, I, 14.

[2] Gasparyan B., Vine and Wine, Yerevan 2005, p. 145.

[3] Mithcell St., Asvan Kale, Anatolian studies, vol. XXIII, 1973, fg. 23, 3

[4]  Khachatryan Zh., The Tomb of Sisian, NAS RA “Gitutyun” publishing house, Yerevan, 2009.

[5] Perikhanyan A., Aramaic inscription on a silver bowl from Sisian, IFJ 1971, N3, p. 78-81.

[6] Khachatryan Zh.D., Glassmaking in Ancient Armenia, IFZ, 1971, N3, pp. 78-81.

[7] B. N. Arakelian, Artashat I, Main results of excavations 1970-1977, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1982.

[8] Tovma Artsruni, 1985, I, 8, 91.

[9] Palandjyan R., Archaeological finds related to winemaking in Ancient Armenia from Vayots Dzor, IAE, Yerevan 2023.

[10] Tovma Artsruni, 1985, I,7, 8, 85, 87-89.

Among the historical and cultural achievements of the ancient Ecumene are several trade items: coins, seals intended for important states, and commercial documents—bullae, which depicted various scenes related to viticulture and winemaking. The influence of this tradition is also visible in Armenia.

The excavations of ancient Artashat, which began in the 1970s, revealed the city’s significant role in the ancient world and shed new light on the material and spiritual culture of ancient Armenia. Of particular value in revealing a number of important socio-economic problems of antiquity are the three city archives[1] found, in which important documents were sealed, as well as monetary inventions—coins.

As one of the region’s most important centers of viticulture and winemaking, Armenia was located at the crossroads of major trade routes. As evidenced by archaeological research of the last decade. The series of bullae from the first archive of Artashat, related to wine, are unique. On the obverse of some bullae, a narrow vessel is depicted, probably an amphora, placed between two bunches of grapes and a star at the top, on others – grape leaves, depicting a grapevine, as well as individual images of amphorae and vessels. The amphora and grapevines undoubtedly testify to the active trade in wine in ancient Armenia.

The heyday of ancient Armenia was primarily due to transit trade. Capitals levied double duty on goods both for export and import. Rich cities of the ancient world, such as Seleucia on the Tigris, Antioch, Rhodes, Ephesus, Corinth, Delos, etc., also lived off international transit trade.

In addition to seals, a bunch of grapes can also be seen on coins. Similar to the above-mentioned seals are the Seleucid coins of Myrina, on the reverse of which an amphora with grape branches and leaves is depicted under the feet of Zeus[2]. On the coins of the Greco-Roman period of Tarsus, amphoras can also be seen lying on their sides[3]. The type of image of a bunch of grapes on the coins found in Sol is very close to the above-mentioned type of image of Artashat[4]. In Phrygia, on the coins of Dionysuspolis (2nd-1st centuries BC), on the obverse is minted a mask of Silenus, and on the reverse – a grape leaf[5], which we also see on the gem kept in the Louvre[6].

Of particular note are several numerous coins from the Artashes Mint, on the reverse of which a bunch of grapes is depicted. They are known both from private collections and from archaeological finds. Some researchers believe that the coins belong to Artashes I, while others are inclined to attribute them to Artashes II. Coins issued by Tigran II are also known, on the reverse of which a grapevine is found[7].

In general, in Asia Minor, frequent images of grape bunches and leaves are associated with the cult of Dionysus[8], viticulture, and wine export, which once again proves the importance of the wine trade in Armenia. Several Armenian[9] and Greek[10] historians mention the high-quality wines of Armenia.

Armenia has exported wine at various historical periods of its existence. It is no coincidence that Armenian coins, which had the king on the obverse, had a grapevine on the reverse as the country’s most important

[1] Хачатрян Ж., Неверов О., Архивы столицы древней Армении – Арташата, Археологические памятники Армении, Ереван 2008.

[2] Хачатрян , Неверов, 2008.

[3] Goldmen H., Excavations at Gozlu Kule, Tarsus. The Hellenistic and Roman periods, Princeton, New-Jersey, 1950, vol. I, text, p. 403, pl. 276, plan 19, pl. 118, fig. 86.

[4] Cox D.H., A Tarsus coin collection in the Adana Museum, New York, 1941, pl. VI, 129-132.

[5] H. von Aulock, Munzen und Stadte Phrygiens . Teil II, IM, Beiheft 27, Ernst Wasmuth Verlag Tubingen, 1987, p. 52, Taf. 1, 2, 2.

[6] Walter H. B., Catalogue of the engraved gems, N 394.

[7] Gasparyan B., Wine in Traditional Armenian Culture, Yerevan, 2005.

[8] Хачатрян , Неверов, 2008, 88.

[9] Мовсес Хоренаци, История Армении (пер. с древнеармянского языка, введение, прим. Г. Саркисяна), Ереван, 1990, I, 16, II, 12.       

[10] Ксенофонт, Анабасис (перевод, стстья и примечания-М.И> Максимовойк). М.-Л., 1951, IV, II, 22, IV, 9; Страбон , II, I, 14, XI, VII, 2, CV, I, 58.

The up to-day ongoing excavations initiated by the Artashat archaeological expedition of the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR in 1970 revealed the significant role of the capital in the cultural, economic and political life of Antique Armenia as well as the Near East.

The systematic study of the site enabled to elucidate various spheres of urban life, including the burial types and some rituals linked to them which stand out and are widespread in this territory in the Antique period.

As it is known, capital Artashat (Artaxata) having existed for almost 600 years and presenting one of the populous cities of the country had several necropoleis (North- Western, North-Eastern and Eastern). Their comprehensive study is of much importance from the perspective of specific assessment of the social-economic, cultural, spiritual as well as anthropological-demographic characteristics of urban society.

The first work on this issue is the monograph entitled ‘Artashat II’ by Zh. Khachatryan where the Artashat expedition’s 1971-1976 study results of certain segments of the necropoleis of the antique city as well as separate burials discovered in the territory of the main city are summoned. With all of its importance there are some ‘white spots’ in this study significant part of which is a consequence of the current state of study of the necropoleis (rescue excavations in the territory of cultivated fields) as well as the methodology of registering the material characteristic for its time.

The present work is dedicated to two classical burials excavated years ago in the lands of Pokr Vedi village as well as the tomb recently discovered by accident in the village which serve to fulfill the relevant data on the accepted ways of burials in Artashat and rituals linked to them. At the same time, these artefacts enable to make preliminary judgements on the function of this north-eastern outskirts of the city.

As it is known, during the rescue archaeology process carried out in the southern outskirts of Pokr Vedi village still in 1967, together with the extensive inscription of the Emperor Trajan a gravestone with a Latin inscription of a Roman soldier was discovered (Figure 1/1). Unlike this important epigraph from the perspective of the history of Artashat, the burial itself was not undergone a separate study. The reason was probably

the accidental discovery of the tomb and correspondingly the dubiousness of linkage of some household artefacts to the latter (pottery of the 1st-3rd centuries, grindstones, etc.). Nevertheless, the discovery of this specific tomb in the given territory of the city is already worth an attention (see below). And despite the above-mentioned circumstances of discovery, the funeral type and its accompanying material remain unknown, the tomb of the soldier of the I Italica (Latin: Legio prima Italica /(‘Italian First Legion’)/) should be dated between 114-116 AD, based on the time circumstances of the encamping of Trajan’s army in Armenia.

Subsequently, during the 1978 archaeological campaign on the left-side segment of Lusarat – Pokr Vedi road, Mkrtich Zardaryan, a member of the Artashat expedition, excavated another looted classical tomb which description of which was given in the field diary of the archaeologist. The tomb was an ordinary tumulus, however from its north it had a preserved platform with a length of 9.8 m, about a width of 0.5 m and a height of 0.35 m. The latter composed of two parallel ‘walls’ built with unhewn stones which having bent first joined together and were attached to the tomb in the north- eastern end. The mid part of the platform was filled with hard-packed soil the level of which was probably equated to the mound. From this very platform and the side of the stone rows a huge number of bones of small and big cattle, sherds of glasses, bowls, kitchen vessels, a fragment of a goblet made of translucent glass and with a hinged ornament, as well as two iron knives were unearthed. Separate human bones, bronze mirror and ceramic sherds were found in the distorted tomb. The whole complex of the artefacts found both in the tomb and the platform is dated between the end of the 2nd century AD and the 3rd century AD. The described platform most likely served as a table for wake on which the used utensils were broken and the food remnants were left after the served rituals.

In its turn, the length of the platform allows to make some judgements also on the quantity of the people who took part in the ritual. According to the accepted calculatory criteria, it may be assumed that about 30 people could seat around the ‘table’-platform.

The third tomb of the area under study has been discovered recently. In 2016-2018 the Artashat archaeological expedition of the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the NAS RA jointly with the Institute of Archaeology of Warsaw University conducted works in the north-eastern segment of the capital (‘Pokr Vedi Armenian- Polish project’). The main goal of the project was to discover the supposed camp built by the Scythian Fourth Legion (Latin: Legio quarta Scythica) evidenced in the inscription of the Emperor Trajan accidentally discovered in 1967, or other monumental structure. For the very purpose field surveys and trenching investigations were realized in the area of the discovery of the abovementioned inscription and in the adjacent hylands of the village during April and October of 2016-2017 and in April 2018.

During the surveys we met a resident of Pokr Vedi, Harutyun Arakelyan, who informed that during the building activities in the yard of his house (J. Duryan Street 16) in March 2016 he accidentally came across with a jar burial (Figure 1/2). Harutyun presented the circumstances of the discovery of the latter, as well as provided with some photographs shot at the moment of unearthing the jar (Figure 2/1-2):

According to the discoverer, the jar opened at a depth of 1.5 m was placed at 45 degree of curvature, it had an east-west orientation (the lip directed to the west) and was carefully closed with an unhewn, flat felsite slab leant against the lip of the vessel (width: 45 cm, height: 95 cm, Figure 2/3).

At the moment of registering the jar by the expedition it was already in a fragmented state, the human and animal bones were mixed, the sherds of the clay vessels found in the jar were also separated. After getting introduced to the site of the discovery and the artefacts on the spot and having fixed them, all of the archaeological material was transported to the site of Artashat where the detailed study of the jar burial was realized.

The jar has an oval waist, without an outlined neck, the outer diameter of the round rim is 56 cm, the internal diameter is 45 cm, the general height is around 120 cm, it has a slightly spread floor and a ‘nipple-shaped’ bottom (Figure 2/4). Probably, the deceased was put inside the jar by means of breaking his shoulder which is proved by the in-situ photographs of the vessel and the description of the discoverer. The accompanying material of the tomb had been placed both inside the jar and on its side, however their exact location was failed to clarify.

The red polished spherical flask with thick lining (‘flagon’) has a round rim, a short and narrow neck and two curved, longish handles fixed on the upper part of the waist. The size of the vessel is: height 26 cm, rim diameter 5.5 cm, handle length 7 cm (Figure 3/1).

The flasks in general have their specific place in the collection of the Antique pottery of Armenia (Armavir, Garni, Artashat, Dvin, Oshakan, etc.). They are handmade vessels pressed from both sides. Some of the samples of the flasks found from the Artashat necropoleis are more spherical on one side rather than the other which is for transporting conveniences. The majority of the flasks are colorful, particularly decorated with red and brown concentric circles.

Besides the real flasks from the 1st century BC there appear spherical ‘flasks’ which existed up to the 2nd century AD inclusive. In this period, they lose their flat sides and gain a spherical appearance and have a function of a water jar, pitcher. At the same time, these vessels repeat the tradition of making flasks in the sense of modelling the neck, handles, as well as the two-part waist.

Besides Artashat, similar spherical vessels were found also in Syunik (Sisian, Vayk). The spherical ‘flasks’ are in general red polished. With its parallels from Artashat the spherical vessel of Pokr Vedi is dated by the 1st – the first half of the 2nd century AD.

The sherds of two massive vessels with faucets found from the tomb are worth of attention. Only the segments of the faucets fixed onto the waist are preserved which are horizontally attached to the lip of the vessel and ends in the shoulder (Figure 3/2-3). Fragments of the rims of four pitchers of economic usage were also unearthed which are covered with yellow-greenish engobe much typical for the ceramics of the period under study (Figures 3/4, 4/1).

There was also kitchen ware in the tomb. They were handmade vessels made of grimy or brown coarse-grained clay. Among the latter, the vessel with deaf, vertical handles and weakly outlined shoulders is of particular interest. The length of the handles is 3 cm and they rise to the rim of the vessel (Figure 3/5).

The funeral inventory consists also of red polished spherical bowl with thin lining, crown and circular bottom (diameter 11 cm, height 4.5 cm, Figure 4/2) as well as another bowl with a rim (diameter 35 cm, height 7 cm, Figure 4/3). Similar cups are known from Artashat, Armavir, Dvin and are dated by the 1st century BC – 1st century AD.

The fragment of the drinking bowl is noteworthy which has an emphasized transition from the semispherical waist to the rim. The sherd of the vessel is quite fine, well-burnt, abraded and polished (diameter 14.5 cm, height 7 cm, Figure 4/4).

The examination of the materials of the jar burial of Pokr Vedi village enables to date it by the 1st-2nd centuries AD. Jar burials have been discovered and studied in various archaeological sites of historical Armenia on which detailed outlines are presented in the works of B. Arakelyan, G. Tiratsyan, Zh. Khachatryan and others. To avoid repeating well-known data and non-justified overburdening of the article we want only to state that this type of burial was one of the most widespread not only in the historical territory of Classical Armenia, but also in contemporary Iberia, Caucasian Albania and in the adjacent areas of the Near East. Inhumation and cremation (with placement of relics) in the jar burials are typical for Artashat as well.

Within the borders of Artashat archaeological site, jar burials are more characteristic for the eastern necropolis of the city where the Artashat expedition realized excavations in 1971. The tombs discovered in the south-eastern and south-western parts of Pokr Vedi village come to prove the preliminary hypothesis that the given terrain served as a necropolis, also in various times of Antique period. The abovementioned archaeological

data also testify about it as well as the two other jar burials accidentally discovered and distorted at the beginning of the same J. Duryan Street of Pokr Vedi which were registered within the 2016 survey. Evidently, this terrain was the suburban outskirt of the north-eastern necropolis of the city in the 1st century BC – 1st century AD where burials were continuously made at least until the 3rd century AD. Therefore, the burial of the soldier of I Italica in the territory of an already existing necropolis was completely natural. Under the light of the presented data, the discovery of small limestone bases, separate stone ashlars, mudbrick fragments, grinding stones and diachronic classical ceramics may be assessed as an evidence for the existing burials and their aboveground structures here. The latter’s existence in Antique Armenia is particularly documented in the burial complexes of Karin (Hasan-Kala) and Sisian.

In the conditions of the absence of trustworthy facts it is hard to insist that all of these architectural and archaeological finds were related to the tomb of the soldier of I Italica. Probably, during the works of digging trench for water pipeline at the southern edge of Pokr Vedi in 1967, a series of tombs and other structures were destroyed among which only the Latin inscription of Trajan and the gravestone of the soldier of I Italica stood out.

Nevertheless, the relevant archaeological data enable to assess the area of Artashat under study as a segment of the north-eastern necropolis of the city, where, together with the urban population, foreigners were also buried.

It is a separate question what the motivation was to place the inscription of Trajan in the territory of urban necropolis. This and series of other questions linked to the field segments of the Antique capital will be elucidated through the further investigations of Artashat.

Hayk Gyulamiryan

National Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, 

Wine History Museum of Armenia

            In contrast to other types of art, architecture tends to centralize within itself the collective image of nations and states. It is the only art where great human labor, technical skills and, ultimately, creative inspiration and the spirit of the nation are united. Zvartnots is the magnificent temple in which, the architectural culture and building art developed centuries before them, were brought together, where the genius Armenian architects were able to manifest all the grandeur of their ideas. Many historiographers admired its beauty and majesty. Particularly, in the work of Sebeos we encounter a laudatory response: “a temple worthy of divine honor”, in the work of Kaghankatvatsi – “an iridescent church”, at Asoghik – “cosmically amazing” terms.

            The earliest evidence that has reached us from Zvartnots is the cuneiform inscription of the Urartian king Rusa II, where a significant volume of building activities, planting orchards and vineyards, as well as of laying a canal from the river and offering sacrifices are mentioned about.

            The creation of the temple was connected with the cultural upsurge in Armenia: the creation of alphabet in the 5^th c. AD, Dvin becoming a city of crafts and trade, the development of culture in the form of literature and the art of translation, which led to a universal cultural renaissance. However, on the other hand, during the construction of the temple, the political situation was tense – the Arab invasions and the ruling aspirations of Byzantium. It was during this difficult period that Nerses III was elected Catholicos, who had previously been a military commander and had been educated in Byzantium. Catholicos Nerses takes upon himself the responsibility not only to appease the tense situation, but also to engage in large-scale construction activities, in honor of which he received the nickname “Builder”.

            The construction of the temple commenced in 641-643 and lasted until 652 AD. The literal translation of the name of the temple is “throng of angels”, which is related to the given location and the events that took place there. Sebeos mentions that King Trdat and Gregory the Illuminator once met here. It is for this reason that Nerses III chose this place as his residence. The consecration ceremony of the temple of the complex was attended by Constantine II, who, being greatly amazed by its beauty, wanted to build a similar temple in Constantinople.

            Despite the fact that the temple has not been preserved to this day, persistent disputes and interest do not cease on its topic. In the 20^th c., the first person who saved the temple from oblivion was Toros Toramanyan – the author of the reconstruction project of the temple. The ruins of the Catholicos palace and its residential parts are now located in the southwest of the temple. The palace consisted of two parts, which were connected by a corridor: in the western part there are ceremonial halls, and in the eastern part – structures of economic significance as well as a large winepress. Medieval Armenian historiographers Sebeos and Hovhannes Draskhanakerttsi evidence about the planting of orchards around Zvartnots Cathedral by Catholicos Nerses Tayetsi. The large-scale winepress was opened by the excavations of Toros Toromanian in 1931. It is a construction built in the 7^th c. AD, with thick tuff walls and a rectangular plan, which consists of two segments and a long corridor between them. The total capacity of all the winepress baskets (“taqar” in Armenian) was about 22,000 liters.

According to the architectural reconstruction, the temple is a circular rotunda. In that period, cross-domed churches with a rectangular or quadrangular plan were common in Armenian medieval architecture. In the case of Zvartnots, instead of a square, the circle is chosen as the basis, the core of the composition is quadriconch, and the temple acts as an original experiment. The external appearance of the temple was surprising in its enormity, in the form of proportionally shrinking cylinders placed one on top of the other. Here, certainly, we come across with the well-known Armenian symbols: the grape vine, pomegranate fruits and plant-geometric bas-reliefs.

            The individual parts of the vine branches carved on the external archivolts of the temple almost form full semicircles, and only at the intersections of the neighboring columns, they are interrupted and bend in different directions. Thus, a leaf is usually followed by a single-branched bunch of grapes, then comes another leaf and two-branched bunch of grapes. The clusters, without exception, hang from the top, and the leaves rise upwards from the inclined branches of the twig, and the details of the vines are worked out in such a way that none of them bear even a close resemblance to the design once already applied. At the intersection points of neighboring archivolts, massive stones are placed directly on the pillars. Here, the bas-reliefs on those stones are of high interest, which by their nature are a unique phenomenon in Armenian architecture and particularly in the decorative arts of the 5^th-7^th cc. AD. Only nine of the bas-reliefs (32 in number) have reached us. As a rule, in the bas-reliefs people are represented with construction tools in their hands. Among the tools, a pointed spade and two types of hammers with hooked and rectangular heads are depicted. According to Toros Toramanyan, these sculptured images present the bas-reliefs of workers, ecclesiastical and secular figures contemporaneous to the church building.

            It is important to note that numerous Christian ideas have been appropriated by the Armenian culture with the help of the national worldview. In the material culture of medieval Armenia, sculptural compositions of grape vines and clusters, pomegranate bushes and bunches are of great importance. While preaching the ideas of Christianity, Armenian archimandrites extensively applied the system of folk world perception, where the role of the garden was exceptional. A wide field of expression of garden ideas was also created by a number of episodes of the New Testament – the Kingdom of Heaven as the vineyard, Christ as the true vine tree: “I am the true vine… I am the vine, you are the branches․․․”, wine as divine blood, righteous judgment as the spirit gathering and crushing the clusters in the divine winepress, God as the heavenly gardener.

            Zvartnots has been discussed by all the researchers who on one occasion or another have referred to the history of Armenian architecture. This circumstance, of course, is not accidental, since becoming famous in the first half of the 20^th c., Zvartnots attracted the attention of numerous scholars and found its rightful place in the history of both Armenian and world architecture.

The article of Hayk Gyulamiryan, director of the Wine History Museum of Armenia, was published in the famous German scientific magazine Antike Welt.

The new article on Armenian winemaking was published in the magazine’s section “Museums of the World” and tells about the creation of the museum, the goals, activities and exhibitions.

“The idea to present the Armenian wine history, rich in centuries-old tradition of growing grapes and making wine in a comprehensive study, has matured over the years.

Various materials discovered in archeological sites, bibliographic data, and findings of ethnographic studies became the basis for creating the Museum of the history of winemaking in Armenia”: mentioned Hayk Gyulamiryan.

Full Article : Antike Welt

A new museum is delving into the history books of Armenia’s rich wine culture.

When you think of wine, there are always a few classic nations that spring to mind. Maybe it’s the lush valleys of France, the sumptuous vineyards of Italy, or a newer location like California or New Zealand.

But you’d be missing out on one of the oldest wine-making regions of the lot. With a history stretching back over 8,000 years, Armenia has wine-cred by the bottle-load.

Some of the earliest evidence for today’s winemaking industry has been found from pieces of broken pottery that were discovered in the South Caucasus region, where neighbouring country Georgia now is.

A new Armenian wine museum is jumping headfirst into wine’s long history, and showing its deep connection to the religion and culture of the region.

Just 30 kilometres from Armenian capital Yerevan is the heart of the country’s winemaking territory. The museum here is built deep into the surrounding basalt rock and as you go underground, you feel as if you’re entering a giant wine cellar.

There you can find fragments of a myth revolving around the tipple.

Ancient wine history

Around 800 BC, King Menua, the fifth king of the ancient Urartu region supposedly gifted vineyards to a woman he was besotted with named Tariri.

The ancient myth can be seen on a stone inscription in the museum.

“We passed through a mysterious tunnel and ended up in the 9th century BC in the Urartian Chamber,” says chief specialist Narine Melikyan.

“From here, you see how our King Menua gives vineyards, which he himself planted by an artificial canal, which he himself built, and now he gives these vineyards to this mysterious, beautiful woman, whose name is Tariri.”

A wine cask to die for

Other ancient exhibits show how wine would accompany Armenians from cradle to grave.

A wine jug dated back to the 1st century BC was discovered by archaeologists to have the remains of a woman in it.

Upon further research, the jug – called a karas – was found to be an integral part of an ancient Armenian’s lifetime.

“When a person was born, there was a karas intended for him, during his lifetime, it was used to age wine. And after death, a person was buried in the karas, in the foetal position.”

Wine has long held connections with religion. Jesus’s first miracle after all, was converting water to wine, and the museum has centuries-old Armenian bibles to demonstrate that.

The museum also holds phallic-shaped stones, which were idols in ancient times. During rituals, ancient Armenians poured wine over the idols as a sacrifice to higher powers. 

In 2011, a 6,000-year-old Copper Age wine factory was discovered in southern Armenia. And the 8,000-year-old broken bits of pottery found to the north in Georgia are thought to be the earliest known evidence for the origins of today’s winemaking industry.

Source: www.euronews.com

The Armenian Highlands have been a prominent center of agriculture since ancient times, where viticulture and winemaking have been among the leading branches of the economy since at least the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. Cuneiform inscriptions of the Kingdom of Van contain references to the establishment of gardens, fencing, construction of cellars, and other economic buildings. In the Hellenistic and pre-Christian period, writing is somewhat replaced by iconography, when the garden-grape scene or simply the vine (fig. 1) begins to spread in the decoration of temple and palace complexes, which later becomes one of the main decorative elements of Christian art, which is expressed mostly in the composition of khachkars in the form of both vines and jugs symbolizing wine (fig. 2-7).

In the Middle Ages, the vineyards were called gardens, and the mention of their purchase and donation to monasteries is evidenced in lithographs from the 9th-10th centuries. Winemaking was also an integral part of gardening. Dry wine often referred to as “cup” in lithographs, is still used in church rites as a symbol of the blood of Christ.

The lithographs show that the gardens could be donated to the monasteries both in full or partially, that is, part of the garden. In addition, the monastery had the authority to manage the crop or income of the garden. For example, according to a 1301 donation from St. Astvatsatsin Church in Goshavank, a hundred jugs of wine from the garden were donated to the monastery. One of the lithographs of 1275 in the lobby of the Sanahin bookstore of the monastery is similar, according to which priest Vardan bought a garden for 375 silver drams and donated it to the monastery’s guest house. Interestingly, at the end of the lithography, the donor addresses the well-known curse-blessing formula, cursing not only those who alienate the garden from the guest house but also those who disrupt the wine (winemaking). 

The information about winemaking in the lithographs is supplemented by evidence of the construction and donation of hndzans (wineries). Thus, According to a khachkar lithograph erected near Noravank monastery, the religious Arakel and his brother Khotsadegh bought a garden with their means, cultivated it, then built a hndzan and in celebration of the work done and the preservation of the harvest (in this case, also wine) they erected a khachkar.

The existence of hndzans in medieval monasteries testifies to the ritual significance of wine in church rites. It can be said that the sacrament of Holy Communion, which is distributed to the faithful at the end of the liturgy, is useless without wine. One of the earliest references to the use of a “cup” of wine in churches is preserved on the lintel of the northern entrance of the church of S. Astvatsatsin in Amberd (Fig. 8, 9). According to the lithograph dated 1026, after the construction of the church, Prince Vahram Pahlavuni determines the amount of the “fruit” tax given to the monasteries- the house for Nig province is two grains of wheat, from Aragatsotn province – two pots (about 10-11 liters) of wine, and from Qaghakudasht, that is, Vagharshapat – ten liters of cotton. The lithograph is the best evidence of the development of grain cultivation, winemaking, and cotton growing in the mentioned places during that period.

In the 1036 lithograph of the Church of the Savior in Ani, the capital of Bagratuni Armenia, Catholicos Petros Getadardz (1019-1058) donated several proceeds to the church ministers and donated a “cup” of wine to Ablgharib Pahlavuni, who initiated the construction of the church. Later, we read about the donation of thirty pas (about 150 liters) of cups in the 1308 lithograph of St. Astvatsatsin Church in Nerkin Ulgyugh village, Vayots Dzor, and according to the 1325 lithograph of the Karmravor St. Astvatsatsin Church in Ashtarak, a garden was donated to the church, the users of which should give a “cup” of wine.

Our recent lithographic research has revealed that “cup” of wine had a special significance in the church rite in the 18th century, the best pairs of which are preserved in the lithographs of St. Hripsime Monastery (Pics. 10, 11). According to a lithograph dated 1728, a certain Gaspar son of Babel donated to the monastery a hundred jars of cups, including grapes, which after processing would be used as a “cup” of wine. According to another countless lithograph of the same monastery, Simon of Dzoragegh and his grandchildren, Eliazar and Vardan, donated a jar to St. Hripsime Monastery. It should be noted that Anania Shirakatsi set 126 cups of wine for the weight of one jar, and one cup weighs about 5.5 kg.

In almost all of the above examples, wine was donated to the monasteries to be served and mentioned by name by the ministers of the church during various religious holidays. Donors followed the well-known template formulas for writing lithographs characteristic of donation letters, ensuring the integrity of their donated property and the promised liturgy.

Arsen Harutyunyan

PHD, Senior Researcher at the IAE

The ceramics of the Classical period of Tigranakert (1^st century BC-3^rd century AD), represented by the richest collection of archaeological material discovered during a decade and a half of excavations, is important source for studying the material and spiritual culture of that period.

Besides rich diversity of shapes it has another important peculiarity: it is presented by luxurious painted pottery, black and gray ware, polished, and decorated by stamped and incised ornaments. Among this diversity there is a small but unique group of stamped vessels that can shed light on cultural innovations of Tigranakert, trade and cultural connections, and the cultural role it played in the region.

Exceptional examples of stamped pottery revealed from the excavations of Tigranakert carried out in different years are black polished, shining goblets, phialas, and fragments of bowls externally decorated with embossed grape clusters forming bands (fig.1). This ceramics is called “cluster-bearing vessels”, meaning that these decorations due to the conical, stamped designs with sharp bottoms and small circles inside are most probably representations of grape clusters.

An analysis of over thirty examples of cluster-bearing vessels reveal that the craftsmen of that period utilized at least nine stampers in order to create the conical clusters that contain from three to eleven grapes that are arranged in different ways (for example, in the case of six or eight circles).

However, despite the diverse samples noted above, there have been no pottery stampers discovered. It is possible to picture what they looked like based on their depiction at the famous sites of the Classical period in the West (fig.2). In order to be utilized comfortably, the stampers had long handles, which sometimes had one or two carved usable ends. The stamped designs were made while the clay was still in a moist, soft state.

Horizontal bands are seen 1.5-2 cm below the rim on the inner side of the black polished vessels of Tigranakert around the perimeter of the vessel and 1.5 cm apart, with the stamped clusters between them running horizontally and equidistantly all the way around. Sometimes two rows of cluster-bearing rows can be found in the same vessel.

During the excavations of the first urban quarter of Classical period carried out in 2013 a complete goblet was found, where the cluster-bearing row is located near the base of the vessel (fig.3). The belt, Almost 5 cm wide belt, formed between its concentric line 2.5 cm below the edge, is decorated with incised triangles.

Moreover, the ornament obtained by the symmetrical repeating pattern of one or more triangles embedded in the horizontal lines is one of the most widely used ornaments on painted pottery, was popular among the masters of Tigranakert. Sometimes two rows of cluster decorations can be found on the same vessel.  In these cases, the first row is located very close to the rim of the vessel, like as on the phialas (Figure 1/3). The second cluster-bearing row is located near the base of the vessel, underlining the bottom. In some samples, the lip of the vessel is underlined with a gently carved stripe. There are also examples with the lip decorated with a grove line. Generally, the clusters are stamped into a straight band, but there are some vessels where the band near the lip is stamped in a staggered way in two lines (fig.4).

These cluster-bearing vessels were created in the unity of the shape, practical significance, and the ornament. According to the studies of the material, only the open vessels were stamped by grape cluster decorations and were intended for drinking liquid / wine. Goblets and phialas bearing cluster decorations confirm the proposition that winemaking was quite developed in Tigranakert of the Classical period. That is also approved by a rock-cut wine-press presented by a polygonal platform and a pit, discovered at the eastern foot of the fortified quarter of Tigranakert in 2012, as well as hundreds of fragments of wine vessels, painted amphorae, and goblets.

An elegant pendant made of blue glass in a shape of grape cluster found from the first urban quarter of the Classical period, as well as the archaeobotanical analyzes of carbonized grape seeds (Vitis vinifera) samples give an idea that at least two types of grapes were cultivated for technical and table purposes in Tigranakert of the Classical period.

The elegant performance of the whole composition of cluster-bearing vessels of Tigranakert, those black polished surface, which tends to leave the impression of varnishing, gives these vessels a special beauty, and provides ground to suppose that they were used for a special purpose.

Armine Gabrielyan

PHD, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography National Academy of Sciences Republic of Armenia

Wine is one of the most mysterious drinks in the history of mankind, with numerous useful properties, mixed with dramas and wars, religion and politics. Why does this ordinary drink so popular since ancient times, and why that is it received attention not only privileged class, but also creative individuals – writers and painters. This many-sorted and  fragrant drink has a centuries-old history, which is not equipped with just dry dates, but also specific symbolism and pictorial canvases. Usually wine embraces the beautiful theme for philosophical reflection. From the one side, its usage could temporarily rid of earthborn concerns, give a bouquet of pleasant peace, but on the other hand, excessive drinking  caused for inadequate state, where reality is fusing with fantasy, which is called “drunkenness” in ordinary language. This drink, which was allowed to be used only by the nobility in those days, seemed to be a kind of “elaborate”, intangible test to test their sense of proportion. Another feature: excessive use seems to “untie the tongue”, which led the Greeks to a wise thought: “truth is in wine”. Where the human mind controls and resists the full expression of its thoughts in every possible way, there wine acts as a magical drink of truth, in the process of using which both slyness and hypocrisy and a tendency to lie disappear.

Wine and winemaking occupy a key place especially in Armenian culture. Wine is not just a drink for them as a way of feeling tranquility, but a sacred drink, which history goes back to the Christian tradition. As is known to all, the first grapevine was planted by Noah. The symbolic interpretation of this event meant a divine reward for patience and faith. In the biblical context, wine crystallizes the divine gift to humanity. Because Noah’s ark landed to Ararat, this event gives reason to assume that Armenia is the birthplace of wine, so this mountain is not only sacred in the Bible, but is also a symbol of Armenia. On this basis, the attitude of Armenians towards wine is quite respectful. It manifests itself in pictorial art by the form of various motifs and subjects. Especially the southern bright coloration contributes to the expressive conveying of the gifts of nature, especially grapes. Armenian masters, with their rich palette, feature the exciting process of grape harvesting, admiring its juiciness. For example, in the works of Martiros Saryan and Minas Avetisyan, whose canvases transfer the colorful expanses of Armenia, can be found still-lifes with grapes.

All of the still lifes of Martiros Saryan embody only the one simple idea – pulsating, immortal life. But unlike other still lifes, here the coloring is more laconic. However Saryan was succeed to show the ripeness of fruits in the frame of limited palette. The sunlight falls on them, intensifying the feeling of freshness and naturalness. About composition, black grapes occupy a central place, which color makes them more massive and ripe. And the rest of the attributes have only a service character, bringing into balance the composition – both in terms of color and composition. This still life is included in the middle period of the maestro’s oeuvre, when he had already become acquainted with Fauvism and that was the style in what he found a way to reproduce his southern temperament. These are strong contrasts, correctly chosen color ratio and light composition.

If in Saryan’s paintings everything is submitting to harmony and balance, then in Minas’ works everything is the opposite –that is expression, shining temperament dominates the line and composition. If Saryan’s still life is a transfer of calmness, peace, it is a hymn to life, then Minas’ work is the extent of intense thoughts and emotions. Unlike Saryan’s still lifes, Minas’ brush works briefly and expressively. On his canvas there is no place for Saryan’s calmness, here is only contrasts. Added to this is pastosity, which makes the painting truly pulsating, despite of the staticness of the figures. If in the case of Saryan, the still life emphasized generosity of the nature, Minas doesn’t put on task of this type. He is much more engaged with the juxtaposition of  bright red, navy blue and yellow-green. It’s a battle of inconsistent colours.Saryan’s still life is more static, calm, which corresponds to his life’s philosophy. What is about Mina’s still life, here both color and composition are subject to the dynamic.

The wonderful draftsman B. Kolozyan is also extremely attentive to nature and its gifts, like Saryan, but unlike him, his works literally abound in fruits, as if the canvas limits them, preventing them from conveying all the generosity and richness of nature. In his still life, the artist contrasts the black and blue colors of grapes with the whiteness of a sheet, creating the illusion of infinity and unlimited space. Here everything flows in all directions, and in a modest plate there is not even a hope that the grapes will fit.